IT+systems+in+organizations


 * 3.10 IT systems in organizations**
 * Introduction **

This topic builds on the concepts introduced in //**“Introduction to project management”**// and provides students with //**a more in-depth understanding of the development of IT systems**//. Most organizations, at some stage in their development, require the //**introduction of a new IT system**// as well as the //**maintenance and eventual retirement of their current systems**//. The ability of the organization to manage this change can //**determine the future viability**// of the organization. Students should consider the i**//nterrelationship between stakeholders, IT systems, data, processes and//** order to accomplish the specified task. For example, students should research real examples of the role of IT professionals who maintain legacy or develop new IT systems, to reinforce the theoretical concepts addressed in this topic.
 * //policies//**, which provides the framework for the different project management approaches needed in


 * Possible scenarios **

Students may take the development of their internal assessment as a starting point for the application of the theoretical and practical aspects of this topic. This may take the form of producing a Gantt chart to indicate the stages in the development of the solution, on the agreed date, or how differing methodologies may lead to variations in the completion of tasks.

Other scenarios may include a city government that wishes to introduce an improved IT system to provide a more secure and effective method of record keeping in its public libraries. This would include the replacement of the storage area network (SAN) to accommodate the increased amount of data requiring archiving, along with the need to provide a disaster recovery system.

=**IT concepts to address in this topic**=

//**Information systems, people and teams**//
[|The role and need for IT in organizations]
 * Support existing business operations
 * Source for competitive advantage
 * E-commerce
 * For specific business activities or processes
 * General accounting
 * Production scheduling
 * Order processing

** Types of Revolutionary Use of IT **
//Using IS (Information Systems) / IT to realign business activities and their relationships to achieve performance breakthroughs.// //Changing the way information is used by the organization and its trading partners, thereby changing how the industry overall carries out the value-adding processes// //Extending the market or product set based on information or changing the role of the organization in the industry.//
 * Business process redesign**
 * Business network redesign**
 * Business scope redefinition**

• Organizational IT policies ([|Top 5])
Almost every organization can benefit from instituting a coreset of basic policies, regardless of industry or culture. Leveraging the following five policies helps ensure an organization's systems are used as intended, while also helping prevent security lapses and virus and spyware infestation:
 * Internet Usage Policy
 * E-mail Usage Policy
 * Password Policy
 * Instant Messaging Policy
 * Software Installation Policy

[|Here]is an example of NERSC's (National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center) account policies as shown on their website. [|Here] are guidelines for developing and introducing workplace policies set by the New South Wales Department of Commerce. [|Here] is an example of policies regarding workplace privacy and employee monitoring.

• IT personnel and organizational structure:
A short podcast to introduce this topic - media type="file" key="ITGSPodcast.mp3" width="240" height="20"

> They **//plan, coordinate, and direct research on the computer-related activities//** of firms. > In consultation with other managers, they help d**//etermine the goals of an organization and then implement technology to meet those goals.//** > They **//oversee all technical aspect//** of an organization, such as **//software development, network security, and Internet operations.//** > Consists of persons that **//provide administrative support to the client and maybe even assists in website maintenance.//** > There should also be personnel available that will **//manage the client's local area network as well as other personal computers//** > Should be able to **//manage Internet servers and also their applications//**. > Other responsibilities should include i**//nstalling as well as upgrading personal computer hardware as well as software//**. > responsible for the **//performance, integrity and security of a database//**. > Additional role requirements are likely to include **//planning, development and troubleshooting.//**
 * Information System (IS) managers - play a **//vital role in the implementation and administration of technology//** within their organizations.
 * Support Staff
 * Network Manager
 * ** Security: ** Ensuring that the network is protected from unauthorized users.
 * ** Performance: ** Eliminating [|bottlenecks] in the network.
 * ** Reliability: ** Making sure the network is available to users and responding to hardware and software malfunctions.
 * Database Administrator
 * data remains consistent across the database;
 * data is clearly defined;
 * users access data concurrently, in a form that suits their needs;
 * there is provision for data security and recovery control (all data is retrievable in an emergency).

• Development personnel

 * Manager
 * Programmer
 * Analyst
 * Project Manager - [|link]



**Strand 1:** Reliability and integrity, Security **Strand 3:** Hardware, Software, Networks, Introduction to project management

The initiation of a system (or project) begins when a business need or opportunity is identified. A Project Manager should be appointed to manage the project. This business need is documented in a Concept Proposal. After the Concept Proposal is approved, the System Concept Development Phase begins. //(Criterion A - Initial Investigation)//
 * • Analysis of current situation**

Functional user requirements are formally defined and delineate the requirements in terms of data, system performance, security, and maintainability requirements for the system. All requirements are defined to a level of detail sufficient for systems design to proceed. All requirements need to be measurable and testable and relate to the business need or opportunity identified in the Initiation Phase. //(Criterion B - Analysis - Requirements Specifications)//
 * • Organizational requirements**


 * • Methods of data collection - questionnaires, interviews, observation, literature searches** //(Criterion A - Initial Consultation with Client)//

Once a business need is approved, the approaches for accomplishing the concept are reviewed for feasibility and appropriateness. //(Criterion B - Analysis - Justification of the proposed solution)//
 * • Feasibility study**

The concept is further developed to describe how the business will operate once the approved system is implemented, and to assess how the system will impact employee and customer privacy. To ensure the products and /or services provide the required capability on-time and within budget, project resources, activities, schedules, tools, and reviews are defined. Additionally, security certification and accreditation activities begin with the identification of system security requirements and the completion of a high level vulnerability assessment. //(Criterion B - Analysis - Requirements Specification)//
 * • Identification of possible IT solutions**

//(Criterion B - Analysis - Requirements specification)//
 * • Requirements specification**

//(Criterion B - Analysis - Justification of the proposed solution)//
 * • Justification of preferred IT solution**

//(Criterion C - Project Schedule)//
 * • Project plan (who, why, what, when and how part of the project)**

//(Criterion C - Project Schedule)//
 * • Project goals, scope and constraints, such as financial, time, technical, human-resource-related, risks,**
 * communication, procurement, quality**

The physical characteristics of the system are designed during this phase. The operating environment is established, major subsystems and their inputs and outputs are defined, and processes are allocated to resources. Everything requiring user input or approval must be documented and reviewed by the user. The physical characteristics of the system are specified and a detailed design is prepared. Subsystems identified during design are used to create a detailed structure of the system. Each subsystem is partitioned into one or more design units or modules. Detailed logic specifications are prepared for each software module. //(Criterion D - Product Design)//
 * • Project initiation document**

• **Design considerations**-[| Basic Concepts and Ideas for Developing a Web Site] The physical characteristics of the system are designed during this phase. The operating environment is established, major subsystems and their inputs and outputs are defined, and processes are allocated to resources. Everything requiring user input or approval must be documented and reviewed by the user. The physical characteristics of the system are specified and a detailed design is prepared. Subsystems identified during design are used to create a detailed structure of the system. Each subsystem is partitioned into one or more design units or modules. Detailed logic specifications are prepared for each software module. (Criterion D:Product design)

• **Inputs, data structure, processes, outputs, user interface**

• **Prototyping**

• **Development of the IT solution** The detailed specifications produced during the design phase are translated into hardware, communications, and executable software. Software shall be unit tested, integrated, and retested in a systematic manner. Hardware is assembled and tested. (CriterionD:Product development)

• **Implementation, Initial testing, alpha testing** The detailed specifications produced during the design phase are translated into hardware, communications, and executable software. Software shall be unit tested, integrated, and retested in a systematic manner. Hardware is assembled and tested.

• **Quality assurance and quality control**

• **Training and support of staff, documentation to support the new IT system** (Criterion F: Product evaluation and future product development)

• **Changeover methods: direct, phased and parallel running**

• **Beta testing** (Criterion G: Required elements)

• **Maintenance** The system operation is ongoing. The system is monitored for continued performance in accordance with user requirements, and needed system modifications are incorporated. The operational system is periodically assessed through In-Process Reviews to determine how the system can be made more efficient and effective. Operations continue as long as the system can be effectively adapted to respond to an organization’s needs. When modifications or changes are identified as necessary, the system may reenter the planning phase.

• **Phase out** The disposition activities ensure the orderly termination of the system and preserve the vital information about the system so that some or all of the information may be reactivated in the future if necessary. Particular emphasis is given to proper preservation of the data processed by the system, so that the data is effectively migrated to another system or archived in accordance with applicable records management regulations and policies, for potential future access.

//**Project management issues**// • Need for project management - [|Link] • Development methodologies: [|agile development]and waterfall development

The **waterfall model** is a sequential design process, often used in software development process, in which progress is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases of Conception, Initiation, Analysis, Design Construction, Testing, Production. Production/Implementation and Maintenance.


 * Agile software development** is a group of software development methodologies based on iterative and incremental development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing, cross-functional teams . The //Agile Manifesto// introduced the term in 2001.
 * 1) **Requirements.** The first step in the Traditional Software Development Process is to identify requirements as well as the scope of the release. It encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.
 * 2) **Architecture and Design.** The goal of the architecture and design phase is to try to identify an architecture that has a good chance of working. The architecture is often defined using free-form diagrams which explore the technical infrastructure, and the major business entities and their relationships. The design is derived in a modeling session, in which issues are explored, until the team is satisfied that they understand what needs to be delivered.
 * 3) **Development.** The development phase uses an evolutionary method that is an iterative and incremental approach to software development. Instead of creating a comprehensive prerequisite such as a requirements specification, that you review and accept before creating a complete design model; the critical development piece evolves over time in an iterative manner. The system is delivered incrementally over time, in small modules that have immediate business value, rather than building and then delivering a system in a single “big bang” release. By focusing development on smaller modules, agile projects are able to control costs despite the seeming lack of planning.
 * 4) **Test and Feedback.** One of the key principles of the Agile Methodology is to conduct the testing of the software as it is being developed. The software development is test driven. The unit testing is achieved from the developer’s perspective and the acceptance testing is conducted from the customer’s perspective.

• Project management methodologies: for example, [|PRINCE2] - "[|PRINCE2 made simple]" (projects in controlled environments 2), [|SSADM] ([|structured systems analysis and design method]), [|PMBoK] (project management body of knowledge), [|CMMI]([|capability maturity model integration]).

The key features of PRINCE2 are:
 * Its focus on business justification
 * A defined organisation structure for the project management team
 * Its product-based planning approach
 * Its emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages
 * Its flexibility to be applied at a level appropriate to the project.

SSADM application development projects are divided into five modules that are further broken down into a hierarchy of stages, steps and tasks:
 * 1) ** Feasibility Study ** -- the business area is analyzed to determine whether a system can cost effectively support the business requirements.
 * 2) ** Requirements Analysis ** -- the requirements of the system to be developed are identified and the current business environment is modeled in terms of the processes carried out and the data structures involved.
 * 3) ** Requirements Specification ** -- detailed functional and non-functional requirements are identified and new techniques are introduced to define the required processing and data structures.
 * 4) ** Logical System Specification ** -- technical systems options are produced and the logical design of update and enquiry processing and system dialogues.
 * 5) ** Physical Design ** -- a physical database design and a set of program specifications are created using the logical system specification and technical system specification.

• Iteration • Time constraints, tasks, resources and milestones; and [|Pert charts] (analyze and represent tasks) • Modelling systems: for example, entities, [|entity relationship diagrams (ERD)], [|data flow diagrams] • Maintenance of legacy systems • System support: for example, internal support, maintenance contract • Incident management and escalation - refers to the activities of an organization to identify, analyze and correct hazards - [|wikipedia.com]

**Incident Management Activities include the following:**
 * Incident detection and reporting
 * Classification and initial support
 * Investigation and diagnosis
 * Resolution and recovery
 * Incident closure
 * Incident ownership